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Battery and critical metals explorer and developer Pan Asia Metals Limited (ASX: PAM) (‘PAM’ or ‘the Company’) has entered into three binding Option Agreements to Purchase 100% of the Dolores North, Dolores South, Pozon and Pink project areas which form the Tama Atacama Lithium Brine Project, as well as the northern half of the Ramatidas project area. The total area is approximately ~120,000ha or ~1,200km2, see Figure 2 and Table 1 for further details.
- PAM has converted MOUs into binding Option Agreements to Purchase 100% of the ~1,200km2 Tama Atacama Lithium Brine Project.
- Tama Atacama is one of the largest lithium brine projects in South America, with ~120,000ha (~1,200km2) holdings across three salars.
- Extensive lithium surface anomalies with elevated lithium results up to 2,200ppm Li and averaging 700ppm Li (270ppm Li cutoff) extending over 160km north to south.
- Tama Atacama is a Tier 1 asset in a Tier 1 jurisdiction - in the truest sense of the term ‘Tier 1’ – and PAM is already in discussions with potential strategic partners.
- PAM plans to commence geophysics and drilling in early 2024.
- The Option Agreements have timelines and expenditure commitments which are attractive and achievable when considered in the context of similar lithium brine project transactions in Chile and the United States.
Pan Asia Metals’ Managing Director, Paul Lock, said: “The Tama Atacama Lithium Project has the potential to be one of the largest lithium brine projects in the global peer group. Surface assays for lithium are extremely high and the project has enviable strategic positioning, with all infrastructure requirements satisfied. Waste and water balance solutions are available should straight evaporation or a DLE-evaporation hybrid lithium extraction model be adopted. The project is situated at a comfortable altitude, is close to a large labour pool and will attract specific brine skillsets from elsewhere in South America. Underlying PAM’s advantages are the progressive changes happening in the Chilean lithium sector, the recent MOU between SQM and Codelco quells speculation around nationalisation, which follows several strategic moves in Chilean lithium by multinational mining and chemical companies, including French based Eramet SA’s recent purchase of early stage Li brine assets for ~A$150m, Codelco’s acquisition of Lithium Power Int. and its Maricunga Li brine assets for A$385m, and recent indications from BASF, BYD and Tsingshan that they plan to build lithium conversion plants in Chile.“
Figure 1: General Location
Figure 2. Tama Atacama Lithium Project – Option Agreement Block Locations
Tama Atacama is a Tier 1 lithium brine exploration project located in a Tier 1 mining jurisdiction, in the truest sense of the term ‘Tier 1’. It is one of the largest lithium brine projects in South America, with ~120,000ha (~1,200km2) under granted exploration licenses or exploration license applications - over which PAM has secured priority as regards to the mineral rights. The project spans three salars and within this area are extensive lithium surface anomalies with assays up to 2,200ppm Li and averaging 700ppm Li (56/177 assays, 270ppm cutoff). The Li anomalies are situated in a trend which extends ~160km from north to south, see Figure 3.
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This article includes content from Pan Asia Metals Limited, licensed for the purpose of publishing on Investing News Australia. This article does not constitute financial product advice. It is your responsibility to perform proper due diligence before acting upon any information provided here. Please refer to our full disclaimer here.
PAM:AU
Lithium Universe
Investor Insight
Lithium Universe’s mine-to-battery-grade lithium strategy offers investors a compelling opportunity to capitalize on the rapidly expanding battery metals market.
Overview
Lithium Universe (ASX:LU7) is dedicated to closing the ‘Lithium Conversion Gap’ in North America by developing a mine-to-battery-grade lithium carbonate strategy in Québec, Canada. Our mission is to support the supply chain needs of original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), particularly in the automotive sector, by converting spodumene supply into lithium chemicals for EV battery plants in North America.
The company's business model focuses on converting spodumene supplies under "take or pay" agreements with OEMs. These agreements include protective pricing mechanisms, such as floor and ceiling prices, to ensure stable margins and mitigate market volatility. This approach guarantees our LU7 refinery's payback while providing OEMs with a reliable and sustainable supply of lithium chemicals.
Company Highlights
- Focused on closing the Lithium Conversion Gap in North America by establishing a 16,000 tpa lithium carbonate plant at Bécancour, Québec
- Lithium Universe announced the results of its Definitive Feasibility Study (DFS) for the Bécancour Lithium Carbonate Refinery in Québec, Canada confirming the viability of a strong lithium conversion project, even within a below-average pricing environment.
- Led by lithium development veteran Iggy Tan, who seeks to replicate his successes at Galaxy Resources with Lithium Universe.
- The company is composed of lithium industry leaders, named the ‘Lithium Dream Team’, representing multiple decades of combined experience in mining exploration, development, production and operations.
The ’Lithium Conversion Gap’
North America anticipates a surge in battery manufacturing, with over 20 major manufacturers planning to deploy an estimated 1,000 GW of battery capacity. These are companies such as General Motors, LG Energy Solution, Ford, Power Co, Northvolt, Tesla, AESC, Toyota and Honda. Assuming the planned battery manufacturing capacity of 1,000 GW by 2028, using a ratio of 850 g lithium carbonate equivalent (LCE) per KWh, the company estimates that 850,000 tons of LCE per annum will be required to satisfy demand in North America.
On the supply side, Canada has surpassed China to claim the top spot in BloombergNEF’s Global Lithium-Ion Battery Supply Chain Ranking, a comprehensive annual evaluation of 30 countries’ potential to develop secure, reliable, and sustainable lithium-ion battery supply chains. Québec has been established as one of the most prospective regions with over 40 companies dedicated to lithium exploration and development. The cumulative lithium resource in just Québec exceeds 500Mt at +1 percent lithium oxide across eight distinct projects, which has increased over 100 percent within the last 12 months. Many companies have plans to develop mines and concentrating facilities to produce spodumene concentrate.
Figure 1: Projected US EV Battery Demand and Announced Battery Production Capacity (2022-2032)
[Source: US Department of Energy, January 2023]
Spodumene concentrate needs to be converted to battery-grade lithium carbonate or hydroxide to be used in the production of cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Currently, there are no operational converters in North America and the company estimates approximately only 100,000 tons of planned hard rock converters are slated for construction in the region. The region seeks to decrease dependence on Chinese lithium converters, aligning with both commercial and national security goals. Canada, acknowledging the significance of energy security, has intensified efforts to reduce Chinese involvement in the sector as part of a “decoupling” or “de-risking” strategy, mirroring the actions taken by the United States.
In a bid to advance further development of lithium supply chain in Canada, Lithium Universe and Polytechnique Montréal have entered into a strategic partnership aimed at advancing lithium processing technologies and strengthening the local supply chain for critical battery materials in Canada. The collaboration, outlined in a memorandum of understanding, seeks to enhance education, research and innovation in areas of mutual interest, with a primary focus on building Canadian expertise in the lithium battery sector.
The ’Lithium Dream Team’
The company’s strategy involves assembling a seasoned team of lithium experts renowned for rapidly delivering successful projects, dubbed the 'Lithium Dream Team', boasting extensive expertise in both hard rock lithium extraction and downstream operations, all within a single company.
Lithium Universe is headed by the chairman, Iggy Tan, who is considered a pioneer in the modern lithium industry. Over 20 years ago, Tan was one of the first Australian mining executives to recognize the potential of the emerging lithium-ion battery industry. He led Galaxy Resources and built the Mt Cattlin spodumene project (137,000 tpa of spodumene product) and the downstream Jiangsu lithium carbonate project (with a capacity of 17,000 tpa). This was the first large-scale vertically integrated, mine-to-battery-grade lithium carbonate project in the world.
Joining Iggy on the board are Pat Scallan and Dr. Jingyuan Liu. Scallan is a seasoned veteran of the lithium industry with over 25 years of managing the world-class Greenbushes Mine. He oversaw the mine's many expansions, increasing annual output from 200,000 in 1997 to over 1.4 million tpa today. Liu is widely regarded as a leading technical expert in the lithium industry. He was previously the general manager of development and technologies at Galaxy Resources, where he was responsible for overseeing the construction and commissioning of the Mt Cattlin spodumene project and the world-renowned Jiangsu lithium carbonate plant. Liu has acted as a special adviser to various lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide projects globally.
Additional Dream Team members include Terry Stark, who previously served as the general manager of operations for both Mt Cattlin and James Bay projects; Roger Pover, with extensive experience as plant manager at Greenbushes and Mt Cattlin; and Huy Nguyen, known for his expertise in the design and construction of the Mt Cattlin mine. John Loxton, who was involved in the construction of the Jiangsu lithium carbonate plant for Hatch Engineering, has also joined the company. John Sobolewski, former CFO and company secretary of Galaxy Resources pivotal in financing both projects, assumes the role of chief financial officer role at Lithium Universe, marking a significant addition to the LU7 team's financial expertise in the lithium domain.
Lithium Carbonate Refinery
The Jiangsu lithium carbonate plant was designed to produce 17,000 tpa of battery-grade lithium carbonate. It adopted advanced Western style continuous process control techniques, setting a standard for lithium refineries globally. The plant now exceeds its design capacity, producing 20,000 tpa, and its battery-grade product ranks among the industry's finest.
Constructing and achieving steady-state quality was accomplished within two years of ground-breaking. Lithium Universe plans to replicate the successful design of the Jiangsu lithium carbonate plant entirely, employing the same suppliers, equipment and engineering firm – mitigating the second major risk. Lithium Universe has contracted Hatch Limited to conduct the definitive feasibility study (DFS), the same engineering company responsible for the original design and construction of the Jiangsu lithium carbonate plant.
Lithium Universe is advancing a mine-to-battery-grade lithium carbonate strategy in Canada through the Québec Lithium Processing Hub (QLPH). The QLPH includes a multi-purpose independent 1 Mtpa concentrator and an independent 16,000 tpa battery-grade lithium carbonate refinery. The QLPH concentrator and lithium carbonate plant aim to replicate the proven success of the Mt Cattlin spodumene operation and Jiangsu lithium carbonate plant to minimize startup and operational risks.
Figure 2: The Company’s proposed lithium carbonate refinery at layout at Bécancour, Québec.
The company has successfully executed an option agreement to acquire a commercial property in the Bécancour Waterfront Industrial Park (BWIP) between Québec City and Montréal. The industrial land secured is only 2.5 kms to the Bécancour deep-water port, allowing the import of spodumene to the facility. The company is taking a significant step towards the production of greener battery-grade lithium carbonate at the proposed Becancour lithium refinery.
Results of its preliminary feasibility study (PFS) for the Bécancour Lithium Carbonate Refinery confirm the viability of a strong lithium conversion project. A definitive feasibility study (DFS) for the Bécancour Lithium Carbonate Refinery was announced in February 2025 indicating strong project economics:
Financial Modelling:
- Economically viable with excellent pre-tax NPV of 8 percent of approximately US$718 million
- IRR (pre-tax) of approximately 21 percent and payback of 3.9 years based on;
- Price forecast of US$1,170/t SC6 and US$20,970/t for battery grade Li2CO3
- Current spot price is approx. US$775/t SC6 and US$10,680/t for battery grade LC
- Operating costs at around US$3,931/tonne;
- Capital cost estimate of US$549 million
- 11 percent increase from PFS mainly due to the Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system and escalation
- Expected annual revenue of approx US$383 million and EBITDA of around US$148 million
- Project break even at around US$740 /t (SC6) and around US$14,000 per tonne LC
Lithium Universe Chairman, Iggy Tan said, “The strong NPV and returns for the project indicate an economically viable project and the Board has made the Financial Investment Decision (FID), and the project is now proceeding to the funding stage..." He added that the company will continue discussions with interested OEMs with spodumene offtake supply seeking conversion outside of China.
As an integral part of the company’s DFS, Lithium Universe has initiated metallurgical testing on various sources of spodumene. This process involves utilizing the flow sheet developed for the Québec Lithium Processing Hub refinery.
The testing is progressing smoothly, and no challenges have been identified with any of the spodumene samples. Each test program is thorough and spans several weeks, with two complete programs already concluded successfully achieving higher than the international battery grade specification of 99.5 percent lithium carbonate. All impurity levels were well within specification limits.
LU7 has signed a memorandum of understanding with Servitank, a local, Quebec-based company, that specializes in optimizing supply chain processes and logistics solutions across various industries, including chemicals and raw materials. The partnership aims to optimize supply chain processes and enhance the operational efficiency of both companies in the rapidly growing lithium sector.
Management Team
Iggy Tan - Executive Chair
Iggy Tan, a trailblazer of the modern lithium industry, was one of the first Australian mining executives to identify the significant opportunity within the emerging lithium-ion battery sector when he spearheaded Galaxy Resources Limited. Tan is looking to replicate that success with Lithium Universe, having built Galaxy’s Mt Cattlin Spodumene Project and the downstream Jiangsu Lithium Carbonate project. He also acquired the James Bay Spodumene Project in Canada and the Sal de Vida Brine Project in Argentina for Galaxy.
When Tan started at Galaxy, the company’s market capitalization was less than AU$10 million. It rose to AU$2.5 billion when the company merged with Orocobre Limited in August 2021. Tan's previous experience working with lithium dates back to the early 1990s when he briefly managed the Greenbushes Lithium Mine and commissioned the first lithium carbonate plant for Gwalia Consolidated.
Tan has over 30 years of chemical and mining experience and has served as executive director for a number of ASX-listed companies. He holds a Master of Business Administration from the University of Southern Cross, a Bachelor of Science from the University of Western Australia and is a graduate of the Australian Institute of Company Directors. He is currently CEO and managing director of Altech Batteries (ASX:ATC,FRA:A3Y)
Alex Hanly - Chief Executive Officer
Alex Hanly has over 10 years of experience in capital delivery and operational management for publicly listed companies within the mining, oil & gas, and manufacturing industries in Australia and Africa. Over the last three years, Hanly held the role of chief executive officer of ASX-listed gold company Polymetals Resources (ASX:POL). He was responsible for the successful IPO of the company, the operational management and the efficient execution of the fast-track strategy.
Hanly has a Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering and Master of Business Administration specialising in global project management.
Patrick Scallan - Non-executive Director
Patrick Scallan’s extensive experience in the lithium industry is a valuable addition to the LGX board. With over 25 years of management experience at the world-class Greenbushes Mine, he is a seasoned veteran. Greenbushes is the largest lithium hard rock mine globally and also hosts the highest-grade ore body in the world. This makes Greenbushes a unique anomaly, as no other lithium deposit worldwide compares to it.
Scallan oversaw the mine’s many expansions, increasing annual output from 200,000 in 1997 to 1.4 million tpa today, and navigated numerous ownership changes during his tenure. He is a specialist in hard rock mining and spodumene concentrating, with downstream relationships with major spodumene converters worldwide.
Scallan is also highly skilled in managing local community relationships, having acted as shire councillor for nearly 20 years during his time at Greenbushes, receiving his Order of Australia Medal for his community and local government contribution. His previous roles include management positions at Capel and Eneabba Mineral Sands in Western Australia and Western Deep Levels Gold Mine in South Africa.
Dr. Jingyuan Liu - Non-executive director
Dr Jingyuan Liu is widely regarded as a leading technical expert in the lithium industry. He previously held the position of general manager of development and technologies at Galaxy Resources, where he was responsible for overseeing the construction and commissioning of the Mt Cattlin Spodumene Project and the world-renowned Jiangsu Lithium Carbonate plant. Liu also played a key role in designing the flow sheet for the Sal de Vida brine project.
Following his work with Galaxy, he has acted as a special adviser to various lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide projects globally, including the Lithium Hydroxide Plant operated by Tianqi in Kwinana, Western Australia.
Liu has over 30 years’ experience in project management, process and equipment design for minerals processing and the chemicals, non-ferrous metals, iron & steel and energy industries, both in Australian and internationally. He was awarded a PhD in chemical engineering from the University of Newcastle, Australia and has worked in senior chemical engineering roles with leading companies such as Hatch Engineering and Metso Minerals in Australia and Malaysia.
He is currently chief technology officer for Altech Batteries (ASX:ATC), developing high capacity silicon anode lithium-ion batteries.
John Sobolewski - Chief Financial Officer
John Sobolewski’s experience in the lithium industry offers another valuable addition to the LU7 dream team. At Galaxy Resources, he played a pivotal role during the feasibility, funding, construction and operation phases of the Mt Cattlin Spodumene mine and Jiangsu Lithium Carbonate refinery. He was also crucial in establishing teams and systems in Australia and internationally. His experience in financial modelling and debt modelling for both projects will be critical in Lithium Universe, completing definitive feasibility studies of the Québec Lithium Processing Hub concentrator and lithium carbonate refinery projects.
Sobolewski is a chartered accountant and a graduate of the Australian Institute of Company Directors. His previous roles include managing director and CEO with Mintrex, CFO and company secretary with Mintrex, Galaxy Resources Limited and Vital Metals Limited, financial controller and company secretary with Croesus Mining NL, and group accountant and company secretary with Titan Resources NL.
Justin Rivers - Head of Geology
Justin Rivers possesses more than 20 years of senior executive, technical and commercial experience in Africa, Australia, Asia, Arctic, Middle East, North America and South America in the major and junior space, with a particular focus on Iron Ore and Gold. He has a well-tenured strategic and tactical approach to the mining industry with intimate commercial, business development and M&A experience in Tier-1, publicly listed and private equity environments.
Prior to joining Lithium Universe Limited, Rivers held the position of executive director and CEO of Mauritian domiciled private equity company Convertible Resources, driving strategic development of its gold projects in the Siguiri region of northeast Guinea. He has a Bachelor of Science (first class honours) majoring in geology and environmental science from the University of Tasmania.
Terry Stark - Head of Mining
Terry Stark was previously managing director - resources division for Galaxy Resources (ASX:GXY), where he was responsible for all of Galaxy’s mineral resources assets such as exploration and mine operations. Stark oversaw the Mt Cattlin construction and subsequent successful start-up. He also managed the Galaxy James Bay project and had a good relationship with the local Cree Nation.
A veteran mining engineer, Stark holds a Bachelor of Applied Science specialising in mining engineering.
John Loxton - Head of Lithium Carbonate Refinery
John Loxton's lithium experience commenced in 2010 with work on the Jiangsu Lithium Carbonate Plant EPCM for Galaxy Resources in China where his responsibilities initially were at a Sponsor level, and further into the project. He was the project manager for the final stages of construction and commissioning. In 2019, Loxton was engaged by Tianqi Lithium as head of projects for the execution of their investment in a lithium hydroxide processing plant in Kwinana, Western Australia. He managed the commissioning of the first train achieving the first product in 2021 and undertook execution planning and establishing a project team for an identical second train in 2022. Loxton is a project manager with over 45 years of experience across a diverse range of energy, industrial, process, civil, and major infrastructure projects.
Roger Pover — Head of Processing
Roger Pover was previously the Mt Cattlin plant manager for Galaxy Resources (ASX:GXY). He was part of the commissioning and start up team and operated the plant for many years. Pover also directed all optimisation modifications made at Mt Cattlin.
Pover is a veteran in the lithium industry, having commenced his career at Greenbushes Lithium mine in the early 90s. He has a 45-year career in the mining and chemical processing industries involving mineral sands, alumina refining, lithium, iron ore, tantalum minerals and tin production.
Huy Nguyen — Engineering Manager
Huy Nguyen has been seconded from Mintrex to act as Lithium Universe Limited’s engineering client representative. Mintrex was the lead engineering company that designed and constructed (together with DRA Global) the Mt Cattlin Spodumene Plant.
Nguyen was part of the construction supervision when Mt Cattlin was built, so he is experienced with not only the design but also the construction process that delivered a project on time and on budget.
Nguyen has a Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering from Curtin University, Master of Business Administration and a member of Engineer Australia.
Victoria Vargas - Director, Lithium Universe Holdings (Canada)
Victoria Vargas brings to Lithium Universe (Holdings) more than 25 years of experience in the North American capital markets, with a significant focus on the Canadian mineral sector. She began her career at Kinross Gold Corporation and joined Alamos Gold in 2004. During her tenure, she played a pivotal role in enhancing investor exposure and facilitating the company's transition from the TSX Venture to the TSX. Before joining Alamos Gold, Vargas worked for H2O Innovation, a Québec-based company focused on providing best-in-class technologies and services for the water and wastewater treatment industry.
Top 9 Lithium-producing Countries
Manufacturers commonly use lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide in these batteries rather than lithium metal. Lithium-ion batteries also include other important battery metals, such as cobalt, graphite and nickel.
After a volatile 2024 that saw lithium carbonate prices drop 22 percent amid oversupply, analysts predict continued market turbulence in 2025. However, production cuts could narrow the surplus from 84,000 to 33,000 metric tons, while strong EV demand — driven by China's record sales — remains a key factor, as geopolitical tensions and rising tariffs on Chinese EVs add uncertainty in North America.
Despite the recent market challenges, global lithium demand is set to surge over the next decade due to demand from EVs and energy storage. Benchmark Mineral Intelligence forecasts a more than 30 percent year-on-year increase in demand from these sectors in 2025.
Meeting this growth will require up to 150 new battery factories and US$116 billion in investments by 2030 to prevent supply deficits. China will remain dominant, but the EU and US are poised for the fastest expansion. With lithium mining projected to grow at a 7.2 percent compound annual growth rate through 2035, the sector faces a critical decade of investment and supply chain restructuring.
As demand for lithium continues to rise, which countries will provide the lithium the world requires? The latest data from the US Geological Survey shows that the world’s top lithium-producing countries are doing their best to meet rising demand from energy storage and EVs — in fact, worldwide lithium production rose sharply from 2023 to 2024, coming in at 240,000 metric tons (MT) of lithium content last year, compared to 204,000 MT in 2023. These totals do not include US production, as that data is withheld.
What are the top lithium-producing countries?
Where is lithium mined? Australia, Chile and China are the top three for lithium production by country. Zimbabwe has also risen significantly in the ranks, moving from sixth in 2023 to fourth in 2024. As the EV lithium-ion battery market continues to grow, it’s likely these countries will vie for larger roles in supplying the metal in the years to come.
Read on for our list of top global lithium production by country.
1. Australia
Lithium production: 88,000 metric tons
In 2024, Australia produced 88,000 metric tons of lithium, making it the world’s largest producer of lithium. Although the country tops the list, year-over-year production decreased just over 4 percent from 91,700 MT in 2023 to 88,000 MT in 2024.
It's likely the country's lithium production declined in 2024 as a result of weaker demand in the EV space, which in turn pushed lithium prices lower.
Australia is home to many significant lithium mines. The Greenbushes hard rock lithium mine in Western Australia is operated by Talison Lithium, a subsidiary that is jointly owned by miners Albemarle (NYSE:ALB), Tianqi Lithium (OTC Pink:TQLCF,SZSE:002466) and IGO (ASX:IGO,OTC Pink:IPDGF). Greenbushes has been in operation for over a quarter of a century, making it the longest continuously running mining area in the state.
The Greenbushes complex also houses four spodumene concentrate plants with a combined annual production capacity of 1.5 million MT. The mine supplies spodumene to the Kemerton lithium plant and other Albemarle conversion sites worldwide for processing.
Mount Marion, a joint venture between Mineral Resources (ASX:MIN,OTC Pink:MALRF) and Ganfeng Lithium (OTC Pink:GNENF,SZSE:002460,HKEX:1772), is another key lithium mine in Australia. The project, which is located in the Yilgarn Craton, southwest of Kalgoorlie, also contains a processing plant with an annual production capacity of 600,000 MT.
Australia also holds 7 million MT of identified JORC-compliant lithium reserves, which puts it behind Chile’s 9.3 million MT. It is worth noting that most of Australia’s lithium supply is exported to China as spodumene.
2. Chile
Lithium production: 49,000 metric tons
Chilean lithium production topped 49,000 metric tons in 2024. Lithium miners in Chile have steadily increased the nation's output by 127 percent since 2020 when production was 21,500 MT.
Chile’s year-over-year growth has positioned it as the second top lithium producer in the world. Unlike Australia, where lithium is extracted from hard-rock mines, Chile’s lithium is found in lithium brine deposits.
The Salar de Atacama salt flat in Chile generates roughly half the revenue for SQM (NYSE:SQM), a top lithium producer. The Salar de Atacama is also the home of another top lithium brine producer — US-based Albemarle.
In April 2023, market participants and lithium miners were surprised by the Chilean government's plans to nationalize the lithium industry. While ultimately it wasn't a true nationalization, the country is moving to gain controlling stakes in lithium assets in the Salar de Atacama and Maricunga through its state-owned mining company Codelco.
SQM has signed an arrangement with Codelco that will allow it to continue operations in the Salar de Atacama until 2060. The two companies will create a new entity for the operations, with Codelco owning 50 percent plus one share of the company.
Chile’s lithium potential has also attracted the attention of major US oil companies. In February 2025 news broke that Exxon Mobil (NYSE:XOM) is in talks with Chilean officials about lithium opportunities, as fossil fuel firms ramp up investments in EV battery metals.
US oilfield services firm SLB (NYSE:SLB) is also expanding into lithium, with its Head of Mining, Nicholas Lugansky, meeting Chilean officials in January. SLB is among eight companies testing lithium extraction techniques and technologies in northern Chile.
3. China
Lithium production: 41,000 metric tons
China produced 41,000 metric tons of lithium in 2024, earning it the third spot on the top producing countries list. The Asian country saw its lithium supply grow by nearly 15 percent year-on-year, from 35,700 in 2023 to 41,000 in 2024.
China is the largest consumer of lithium due to its electronics manufacturing and EV industries. It also produces more than two-thirds of the world’s lithium-ion batteries and controls most of the world’s lithium-processing facilities. China currently gets the majority of its lithium from Australia, but it is looking to expand its capacity.
In January of 2024, China announced the discovery of a massive million-metric-ton lithium deposit in the country's Sichuan Province. Lithium exploration in China over the last three years has boosted the country’s lithium reserves by 1 million MT, to 3 million MT, according to the USGS.
However, in early 2025 the China Geological Survey, pegged the nation’s total reserves to be more than 30 million MT.
4. Zimbabwe
Lithium production: 22,000 metric tons
In 2024 Zimbabwe's lithium production ballooned to 22,000 metric tons, an exponential increase from 2022’s 800 MT. Year-over-year lithium output rose 47 percent between 2023 and 2024, from 14,900 MT to 22,000 MT.
Total reserves in Zimbabwe have also seen growth climbing from 310,000 MT in 2023 to 480,000 MT as per the US Geological Survey.
In December 2022, Zimbabwe banned the export of raw lithium in an effort to build out the nation's capacity to process battery-grade lithium domestically. The ban excludes companies that are already developing mines or processing plants in Zimbabwe. Lithium concentrate is now on track to become Zimbabwe's third biggest mineral export, behind gold and platinum-group metals, reported Reuters in November 2023.
Lithium-producing countries in Africa have attracted much attention from Chinese firms in recent years, especially Zimbabwe. Sinomine Resource Group (SZSE:002738), for example, bought a stake in Zimbabwe's emerging lithium industry with the purchase of the Bikita mine, the African nation's oldest lithium mine.
Zimbabwe's other key lithium mines include Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt's (SHA:603799) Arcadia mine and state miner Kuvimba Mining House’s Sandawana mine.
In September 2024, Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt and Tsingshan Group,a nickel and stainless steel company, announced plans to study and build a lithium mine and processing plant at Sandawana located in the south of Zimbabwe.
5. Argentina
Lithium production: 18,000 metric tons
Argentina’s annual lithium production grew significantly in 2024, totaling 18,000 metric tons. Year-over-year lithium production increased by more than 100 percent from 8,630 MT in 2023.
It’s well known that Bolivia, Argentina and Chile make up the Lithium Triangle. Argentina’s Salar del Hombre Muerto district hosts significant lithium brines, and its reserves - 4 million MT - are enough for at least 75 years.
At present, lithium mining in the country consists of two major brine operations currently in production and 10 projects that are in development. Analysts at consultancy firm Eurasia Group project that Argentina’s lithium production has the potential to grow approximately tenfold by 2027, as per CNBC.
One of the largest lithium miners in Argentina is Arcadium Lithium (ASX:LTM,NYSE:ALTM), the result of the January 2024 merger of Livent and Allkem. The new entity is the third largest lithium producer in the world. This is soon to change as Rio Tinto (ASX:RIO,NYSE:RIO,LSE:RIO) is set to close its acquisition of Arcadium in early March, bringing its assets under Rio Tinto's umbrella.
Rio Tinto also owns the Rincon lithium brine project, which is set to be a major contributor to the country’s lithium output once it begins commercial production, targeted for 2028. In December 2024, Rio Tinto announced a US$2.5 billion expansion. Once operational, Rincon will use direct lithium extraction technology and produce 60,000 MT of battery-grade lithium carbonate annually, combining a 3,000 MT starter plant and the 57,000 MT expansion.
6. Brazil
Lithium production: 10,000 metric tons
Lithium production in Brazil continues to trend higher. In 2024 the South American nation produced 10,000 MT, almost double 2023’s 5,260 MT. After achieving output of 400 MT or less from 2011 to 2018, the country’s production hit 2,400 MT in 2019 and has continued to rise year-over-year.
Brazil's government plans to invest more than US$2.1 billion by 2030 into expanding the nation's lithium production capacity.
At the state level, in 2023 the Minas Gerais government launched the Lithium Valley Brazil initiative, which is aimed at promoting investment in lithium mining. The program includes four publicly listed lithium companies with assets in the state's Jequitinhonha Valley: Sigma Lithium (TSXV:SGML,NASDAQ:SGML), Lithium Ionic (TSXV:LTH,OTCQX:LTHCF), Atlas Lithium (NASDAQ:ATLX) and Latin Resources (ASX:LRS,OTC Pink:LRSRF).
EV makers are also eyeing Brazil’s lithium market. In February 2025, Reuters reported that Chinese EV giant BYD (OTC Pink:BYDDF,HKEX:1211,SZSE:002594) reportedly entered the mining sector in 2023, when it acquired 852 hectares of lithium-rich land in Minas Gerais' Jequitinhonha Valley. The company is currently building an EV factory in Bahia state, but construction was paused at the end of 2024 due to "slavery-like" working conditions.
7. Canada
Lithium production: 4,300 metric tons
Canada's lithium production increased to 4,300 metric tons in 2024, representing a 32 percent uptick from 2023’s 3,240 MT.
The country currently produces lithium from two operations: the Tanco mine in Manitoba, owned by Sinomine subsidiary Tantalum Mining, and the North American Lithium operation in Québec, a joint venture between Piedmont Lithium (ASX:PLL,NASDAQ:PLL) and Sayona Mining (ASX:SYA,OTCQX:SYAXF).
While Canada is home to a wealth of hard-rock spodumene deposits and lithium brine resources, much of it remains underdeveloped. In an effort to grow a strong North American lithium supply chain for the battery industry, the government has invested in a number of lithium projects, including C$27 million for E3 Lithium (TSXV:ETL,OTCQX:EEMMF), a lithium resource and technology company, and C$1.07 million to private company Prairie Lithium. Both are developing direct lithium extraction technology in Canada's prairie provinces Alberta and Saskatchewan.
In November 2023, the Canadian government launched the C$1.5 billion Critical Minerals Infrastructure Fund. The fund seeks to address gaps in the infrastructure required for the sustainable development of the nation’s critical minerals production, including battery metals like lithium.
Canada's efforts were rewarded in early 2024, when BloombergNEF gave the nation the top spot in the fourth edition of its Global Lithium-ion Battery Supply Chain Ranking.
At the end of 2024, the Canadian government’s Export Development Canada program pledged up to C$100 million in financing to Green Technology Metals (ASX:GT1,OTC Pink:GTMLF) for the development of Ontario's first lithium mine at Seymour Lake.
8. Portugal
Lithium production: 380 metric tons
Portugal's lithium production remained flat in 2024 coming in at 380 metric tons, the same tally as the previous year. Output has declined drastically since 2021, when its lithium production reached 900 MT.
Most of Portugal's lithium comes from small-scale operations targeting quartz and feldspar. Despite this lithium-producing country’s comparatively low output, Portugal’s lithium reserves stand at 60,000 MT.
In September 2024, Savannah Resources (LSE:SAV,OTC Pink:SAVNF) delayed the start of lithium production at its Barroso project in Portugal to 2027, citing prolonged environmental approval processes and regulatory hurdles. The project has also received public backlash due to concerns about the environmental impact of lithium mining.
The project, set to be Western Europe’s first significant lithium mine, is projected to play a pivotal role in the EU’s ambitions of battery material self-sufficiency. Despite the setback, Savannah remains committed to advancing the development, emphasizing its role in strengthening Europe’s EV supply chain.
9. United States
Lithium production: Withheld
In the final place on this top lithium-producing countries list is the US, which has withheld production numbers to avoid disclosing proprietary company data. Its only output last year came from two operations: a Nevada-based brine operation, most likely in the Clayton Valley, which hosts Albemarle’s Silver Peak mine, and the brine-sourced waste tailings of Utah-based US Magnesium, the largest primary magnesium producer in North America.
There are a handful of major lithium projects underway in the US, including Lithium Americas’ (TSX:LAC,NYSE:LAC) Thacker Pass lithium claystone project, Piedmont Lithium's hard-rock lithium project and Standard Lithium’s (TSXV:SLI,OTCQX:STLHF) Arkansas Smackover lithium brine project.
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Securities Disclosure: I, Georgia Williams, hold no direct investment interest in any company mentioned in this article.
